City Council - Workshop Meetings

City Council Workshop Meeting Eagle Valley Golf Course Banquet Room 2600 Double Eagle Lane, Woodbury, MN 55129 February 15, 2023 | 6:30 p.m. Questions regarding the meeting will also be taken between the hours of 8:00 a.m. to 4:30 p.m. via email council@woodburymn.gov or call 651-714-3524 and leave a voicemail message Please note that all agenda times are estimates. 6:00 p.m. Dinner – Ash North and South Conference Rooms Workshop Agenda 6:30 p.m. 1. Diversity, Equity, and Inclusion (DEI) Training for City Council 23-36 8:00 p.m. 2. Break 8:10 p.m. 3. Woodbury Water Softening 23-37 8:45 p.m. 4. Administrator Comments and Updates1 8:50 p.m. 5. Mayor and City Council Comments and Commission Liaison Updates1 8:55 p.m. 6. Adjournment 1 Items under comments and updates are intended to be informational or of brief inquiry. More substantial discussion of matters under comments and updates should be scheduled for a future agenda. The City of Woodbury is subject to Title II of the Americans with Disabilities Act which prohibits discrimination on the basis of disability by public entities. The City is committed to full implementation of the Act to our services, programs, and activities. Information regarding the provision of the Americans with Disabilities Act is available from the City Administrator's office at (651) 714-3523. Auxiliary aids for disabled persons are available upon request at least 72 hours in advance of an event. Please call the ADA Coordinator, Clinton P. Gridley, at (651) 714-3523 (TDD (651) 714-3568)) to make arrangements.  1 City of Woodbury, Minnesota Office of City Administrator Council Workshop Letter 23-36 February 15, 2023 To: The Honorable Mayor and Members of the City Council From: Clinton P. Gridley, City Administrator Subject: Diversity, Equity, and Inclusion (DEI) Training for City Council Summary As the City of Woodbury continues to grow and becomes more diverse, fostering an inclusive and welcoming community is paramount to the City’s continued success. Part of fostering an inclusive and welcoming community starts with our staff and elected officials gaining a deeper understanding around diversity, equity and inclusion and the importance of approaching everything we do with an equity lens. This training is meant to continue the conversation around how we can bring that equity lens to decision-making and why that is important for our community. The format will be conversational with sharing of experiences, listening, and learning, guided by our facilitator, Shawn Sorrell. Shawn is a Woodbury resident and a leader on our Multicultural Advisory Committee (MAC) in Public Safety. He is also a DEI leader in his professional career with extensive experience facilitating DEI trainings, like this workshop. Our goal with this workshop will be that the City Council will leave with a better understanding of diversity, equity, and inclusion and why it is important to address these components in the work the City does on behalf of the community members. This will likely be the first conversation of many to come. Recommendation The staff recommendation for this training is to come prepared to actively participate with an open mind. Staff recommends that the City Council would agree to future discussions and training on this topic at the end of the workshop. Secondly, in the future, the workshop letter template will include a Community Engagement and Equity Section. Included in this section will be an option to identify the level of engagement from the International Association of Participation (IAP2) spectrum of participation found in the Community Engagement Resource Guide. Governance Mode • Generative - Identifying key questions, anticipating future challenges, framing of issues, development of options. Problem-framing. What to pay attention to, what it means, and what to do about it. How does it fit with our mission, vision and values? Council Workshop Letter 23-20 February 15, 2023 Page 2 Fiscal Implications There are no fiscal impacts for the training today. However, there may be a cost for future training. Policy The community engagement strategy falls under the Welcoming and Inclusive Community strategic initiative from previous years, as well as the Quality of Life critical success factor. Public Process This is the first public process for this item. Background In 2012, the City Administrator identified diversity as a priority focus area. Community dialogue roundtables were held in 2013 and an internal DEI Committee was established. In 2016, a small cohort of staff attended a year-long training program put on by the Government Alliance for Race and Equity (GARE) hosted at the League of Minnesota Cities. A second small cohort of staff went through that same training in 2017. Through some of this training, changes were made internally, including Public Safety prioritizing engagement with our community, including intentionality around engaging communities of color. There was also a prioritization around workforce equity including reviewing and discussing unconscious bias before hiring interviews, reevaluating job qualifications and descriptions, and expanding reach of job postings and advertisements. In 2019, there were inclusivity, belonging and demographic questions added to the community survey to measure how our community felt in these areas with each survey. Public Safety has made a number of strides around DEI including the creation of the Police Multicultural Advisory Committee (MAC), involving MAC members in interview panels for City employees, creating an affinity group to support officers of color and delivering courageous conversations training for all sworn officers. This past year, the City hired a Community Engagement and Equity Coordinator to focus on equitable community engagement and training the staff on how to use an equity lens in the work they do. Because of the turnover of staff, there is a need to have an intentional DEI staff training program created, which will include an onboarding component. That is something that will be worked on this year, in conjunction with on-going training and DEI conversation with the City Council. Written By: Shelly Schafer, Community Engagement and Equity Coordinator Approved Through: Clinton P. Gridley, City Administrator Attachment: Racial Diversity, Equity and Inclusion Timeline Infographic  Racial Diversity, Equity and Inclusion In order to be a leading community where everyone has the opportunity to thrive, Woodbury works to hire, train and develop staff with the necessary skills to recognize disparities and critically examine barriers to service. City identifies diversity Community Dialogue as priority focus area Roundtables Establish internal Diversity, 2012 Equity and Inclusion (DEI) 2013 Committee President’s Task Force on 21st Century Policing Strategic Initiative 2015 Intercultural Public Safety Department advances recommendations Foster a Welcoming and Department for diversifying workforce. Inclusive Community Inventory (IDI) Minnesota Criminal Justice and Faith Leaders 2015 Community Survey: Peace Coalition Slight decline in Sense of Ties to the Community Woodbury THRIVES Adjust community Community Conversations service officer hiring process to increase diversity Begin year-long 2016 Improve Public Safety Government Alliance for Race GARE Program internship to increase and Equity (Round 2) diversity (GARE) Program (Round 1) Prioritize Public 2017 Internal DEI Grant Safety Engagement Projects • Discuss race and • Paint the Skoolie bus policing with Black • Childcare for Shift community members Prioritize workforce equity • Gather community Workers Feasibility • Review and discuss unconscious Study input on Body Worn Camera and bias before hiring interviews 2018 • EMS Academy Immigration policies • Reevaluate job qualifications and Scholarships descriptions Nonprofit Roundtables • Nexus Community • Discuss inclusivity • Evaluate candidates on cultural Partnership and safety with competence Launch 6-month series of Islamic Society • Expand reach of job postings and Nonprofit Roundtables Woodbury East Metro advertisements Add inclusivity, belonging Remove first-year dues for and demographic Woodbury Public Safety questions to community Explorer Program survey Add cultural competence to annual employee evaluations 2019 Community Survey: Diversity and Inclusion 2019 DEI Ambassadors program Build DEI-competent bench strength and engage more staff in the work of advancing equity Police Multicultural Advisory Committee 2020 Involve MAC members in interview (MAC) created panels for city employees Expand Flexible Workplace Policy to Create affinity group to encourage diverse support officers of color recruitment and retention 2021 Hired Community Engagement and Equity Coordinator focused Courageous Conversations training on equitable engagement Evaluate emerging opportunities to improve for all sworn officers equity in Public Safety Developed the equity-centered Community Engagement 2022 Resource Guide Training and Education | Workforce Equity | Community Engagement Review resources, including the Inclusive and Welcoming Community Partnership Plan and Policing with Our Community Report, online woodburymn.gov/DEI | woodburymn.gov/MAC | woodburymn.gov/PolicingRaceEquity | woodburymn.gov/PoliceAccountability  2 City of Woodbury, Minnesota Office of City Administrator Council Workshop Letter 23-37 February 15, 2023 To: The Honorable Mayor and Members of the City Council From: Clinton P. Gridley, City Administrator Subject: Woodbury Water Softening Summary At the January tri-annual meetings, the individual Council Members shared their perspectives on continuing to pursue water softening as part of the overall project. This agenda item is for Council to provide direction (not a vote) if staff should be continuing the research and provide information on water softening or if we should conclude this effort. Recommendation During the February 15 workshop, staff requests Council direction on whether to continue with the design and construction of lime water softening beyond the approved thirty percent design or discontinue planning for softening infrastructure after thirty percent design. While staff continues to support the objectives of water softening and agrees that building a water softening facility with the plant has the greatest economies of scale and avoids another potential future construction of the site, we recommend discontinuing the water softening consideration after 30% design. The primary reasons are: 1. Level of effort 2. Lack of state advocacy to remove chlorides 3. Cost of facility 4. Insufficient Council and public support Fiscal Implications The Conceptual Drinking Water Supply Plan (CDWSP) does not include water softening. The approximate $100 million investment for softening design and construction would be borne by the city’s rate payers if alternate funding is not identified. The investment in thirty percent design for softening is an estimated $1.04 million. Governance Mode • Fiduciary - Stewardship of tangible assets, oversees operations and ensures efficient and appropriate use of resources, legal compliance and fiscal accountability. Council Workshop Letter 23-37 February 15, 2023 Page 2 • Generative - identifying key questions, anticipating future challenges, framing of issues, and development of options. Policy Aligns with the 2019-2021 Strategic Initiative 19-01, Ensure Long-term Drinking Water Sustainability. Public Process • September 1, 2022 Council memo: Water Softening • November 16, 2022 Council workshop: • November 30, 2022 Council meeting: Pros and Cons of Softening Pros See the attached centralized water softening summary, which outlines the benefits of water softening, especially in the areas of water quality and reduced water use. The magnitude of benefits led Council to approve 30% design for softening, ensuring the possibility of adding the treatment is not precluded in the future. Designing softening to the 30% mark provides the following benefits: • Allows the City to optimize the layout of the treatment plant and maintain a streamlined process flow, correctly design the roads on site for chemical delivery and avoid a hodge- podge layout if later expanded. • Design team will be able to better estimate the cost for softening and operating and maintenance (O&M); especially with an accurate list of pumps, chemical usage and potential building maintenance costs. • Grading and stormwater design for the full facility can be taken into consideration, which will limit the required redesign or rehabilitation costs later. Potential for significant future cost savings. • Architectural considerations for the large softening basins can be included in the architectural design of the facility to maintain a consistent look and feel. If Council were to move forward with building softening at this time, benefits would also be realized in the areas of economies of scale and disrupting the neighborhood with construction only once. Cons The most notable con to including softening in the upcoming water treatment plant construction is the estimated cost of the project. Lime softening is estimated to be approximately $100 million, and except for a commitment from South Washington Watershed District for a nominal contribution to ongoing bond payments, there is no additional outside funding at this time. The project would need to be funded through water rates or other funding sources to be identified at a later date. Council Workshop Letter 23-37 February 15, 2023 Page 3 Additionally, Woodbury staff will be delivering double the normal capital improvement projects over the next five years, with water treatment added to our already comprehensive capital improvement plan. Staff capacity to deliver projects will be challenged, even without the addition of softening to the water treatment plant. Water quality through the removal of PFAS is the Council and the community’s number one priority and focus will benefit the continued success of that project. Lastly, the state does not currently regulate chlorides removal from wastewater and, therefore, there is not political or readily accessible financial mechanisms in place through state or other agencies to support the project. Background Due to Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances (PFAS) in the ground water, Woodbury is preparing to build a water treatment plant. Woodbury City Council has been considering whether it is also the appropriate time to include lime water softening, as part of the water plant build. With the removal of home softeners, water softening has the potential to conserve water by reducing use during home softener regeneration supporting Woodbury’s groundwater appropriation permit, reduce chlorides in the waste water stream, provide additional drinking water quality improvement by addressing other existing and immerging contaminants, and provide additional secondary benefits. On August 18, 2021, the Minnesota Pollution Control Agency (MPCA) and the Department of Natural Resources (DNR) Co-Trustee’s Conceptual Drinking Water Supply Plan (CDWSP) was released. The much anticipated plan represents many years of work by state agencies and impacted East Metro communities and takes steps toward supporting the various water-related City Council strategic initiatives since 2015; ensuring a sustainable water supply for the future. At the November 16 Council workshop, Council gave direction to staff to move forward with thirty percent design of softening for the water treatment plant. This direction was affirmed with a Council vote on November 30, 2022. The investment in thirty percent design will maintain the ability to add softening in the future by being sure to design the plant in a fashion that infrastructure will allow for the future addition. Written By: Mary Hurliman, Public Works Director Approved Through: Clinton P. Gridley, City Administrator Attachments: 1. Centralized Water Softening Summary 2. Council memo September 1, 2022: Centralized Water Softening Impacts  CHLORIDE IN WOODBURY Hardness As mg/L As gpg Stewards of After road salt, water softener salt is the biggest source of chloride pollution in the Metro area. An estimated 160,000 bags of water softener salt (or 3,140 tons) are used in Woodbury’s 28,000 homes each year. Classification Soft CaCO3 0-60 CaCO3 <1-3.5 the Aquifer Moderate 60-120 3.5-7 Most residents have home water softeners because the water supplied by the City is hard – typically in the range of 250 to 360 mg/L as calcium carbonate (or more than 10 grains per Hard 120-180 7-10.5 gallon). Water hardness refers to the amount of dissolved minerals in water, mainly calcium and Very Hard 180+ Over 10.5 magnesium. These minerals react with soap and detergents creating a difficult to remove scum. High hardness waters will also cause scaling in water pipes, hot water heaters, and appliances. mg/L: milligrams per liter; gpg: grains per gallon Centralized Water Softening Home Water Softening Home water softeners work by exchanging hardness ions with chloride ions, which adds Process with Chloride chloride to the water supply. Municipal wastewater treatment plants are not designed to remove the chloride from the wastewater so the chloride that is added upstream is passed through to our lakes and rivers. City water systems that provide softened water to their City Water Supply x 28,000 customers can help reduce chloride in the environment Chloride ion exchange process Water Softening Options and use water sources more efficiently. ALL ABOUT CHLORIDE A study by the University of MN estimates that the top three sources of chloride in our Wastewater treatment plant Discharge to river environment are road salt (42%), fertilizer (23%), and wastewater treatment plants Residential softener (22%). It takes only one teaspoon of salt to permanently pollute five gallons of water accord to the Minnesota Pollution Control Agency (MPCA). Once chloride is mixed with Centralized Water Cities can soften water without using chloride in a process called ‘Lime Softening’. This water, it is very difficult and costly to remove. Softening Process with approach to water softening is done in a centralized location before water reaches homes and Chloride can be toxic to fish and other aquatic life. Reducing chloride Lime and Soda Ash businesses. Water can be softened to a level that reduces or eliminates the need for pollution from known sources is cost effective and can have environmental in-home water softeners. The lime and soda ash process softens water by removing minerals benefits. MPCA monitoring data shows that chloride concentrations are from the water, and produces a waste stream which can be processed and disposed of or increasing in all of the major waterways in the Twin Cities area. Cities used as a soil amendment. and other agencies in MN are currently working to reduce road City Water Supply salt use with smart salting and other best practices. Lime and soda ash process Wastewater Discharge to river Water softening plant treatment plant BENEFITS OF CENTRALIZED WATER SOFTENING CHLORIDE IN WASTEWATER Most chloride that arrives at Chloride is not used in a municipal lime-softening treatment process. Instead of wastewater treatment plants in Water Quality chloride, a centralized water treatment plant uses chemicals (lime and soda ash) to Household softening the Metro area comes from water soften the water. Hardness is filtered out of the water along with other contaminants softeners. Because our wastewater like iron and manganese, dissolved minerals, radium, and heavy metals including Other minor sources treatment plants are not designed to arsenic, silica, and turbidity. Eliminating water softeners through centralized including natural sources, remove chloride, it passes through treatment could reduce the amount of chloride Woodbury sends to the 44% 16% human waste, water the treatment process and ends up in wastewater treatment plants by over 65%. treatment chemicals and our waterways. Reducing the use of household products salt at the source is the best way to Municipal softening can also improve water efficiency. Home water softeners require a Reduced Water Use reduce chloride pollution in our lakes, periodic regeneration process where up to 50 gallons of water are flushed through the rivers, and groundwater. softener and down the drain. This process occurs every few days depending on how 14% Commercial softening the softeners are set up. A city like Woodbury could save 30-90 million gallons per Source: University of Minnesota, year if home water softeners were removed or made more efficient as a result of Chloride Contributions from Water Softeners and centralized water softening. 26% Industrial Sources Other Domestic, Commercial, Industrial, and Agricultural Sources to Minnesota Waters, 2019. water@woodburymn.gov CONTACT US woodburymn.gov/WaterSoftening WOODBURY WATER TREATMENT PLANT Softening Summary The hardness of Woodbury’s water supply is typically in the range of 250 to 360 mg/L (expressed as calcium carbonate), which is considered very hard. Due to the high hardness levels, many households and businesses use individual Ion Exchange water softeners to remove the hardness. BENEFITS OF CENTRALIZED SOFTENING Environmental Economic Social Chemical/Treatment • Reduced consumption of soaps, detergents, Reduced Chloride Concentrations in and cleaners Wastewater: Over 65% of the chloride load to • Longer lasting equipment and fixtures a wastewater treatment plant is from in-home and commercial water softeners. The City could • Reduced sodium concentration in tap water eliminate over 3,144 tons of salt annually that is provides health benefits currently discharged to the wastewater system. • Water conservation and reuse at the WTP - could save up to 25.7 million gallons per year or 70,000 gallons per day! Reduction in Total Dissolved Solids: Lime • Increased equity through centralized access to softening reduces the TDS in the finished water quality water and also removes additional contaminants • Maximize investment by minimizing the impacts of (iron and manganese, dissolved minerals, future capital inflation and paying down debt now. radium, heavy metals including arsenic, silica, • Economic development opportunities by joining and turbidity) other local cities that invested in softening for their citizens and local businesses. • Stabilization and control of pH – critical for controlling Reduction of Salt Usage by 3,144 Tons - lead and copper compliance in the drinking water. Saving approximately $1 million dollars per year in salt costs. • Cheaper, more sustainable replacement for lime in agricultural soils. Softening Approach Current In-Home Centralized Softening Centralized Softening FINANCIAL Softening (w/ in-home softener) (w/o in-home softener) Monthly Salt Cost $5.13 $2.06 - IMPACTS Monthly Rate Increase* - $10.35 $10.35 Monthly Water Softener Cost** $8.33 $8.33 - Total Softening Cost $13.46 $20.74 $10.35 * Costs are based on a $3.5M/year in O&M cost for softening. Other costs related to utility operations and capital are not considered. ** Assume $2,000 capital cost for a water softener that will last 20 years ***Cost impacts do not take into consideration the initial capital cost for softening or long term replacement costs for softening. Further analysis will be provided by the water rate study which will provide more guidance on debt repayment and rate structure. 350 mg/L 180 mg/L 150 mg/L 120 mg/L <60 mg/L Current Treatment Goal (Lime and Soda Ash Softening) TECHNICAL MEMORANDUM To: City of Woodbury Attn: Jim Westerman From: Aaron Vollmer Re: Centralized Municipal Water Softening Impacts Date: September 1, 2022 INTRODUCTION The City of Woodbury is constructing a new centralized Woodbury Water Treatment Plant (WTP) to provide drinking water for the residents and industries of Woodbury. The centralized Woodbury WTP will treat for Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances (PFAS) which is the primary contaminant of concern. As part of this Woodbury WTP, the City is interested in evaluating other treatment goals that may be of benefit to the residents. One possible treatment goal is softening. The hardness of the Woodbury water supply is typically in the range of 250 to 360 mg/L as calcium carbonate (CaCO3), which is considered very hard. Table 1 shows the categories of water hardness and the respective hardness range. Due to the high hardness levels, many households and businesses use individual Ion Exchange water softeners to remove the hardness. Utilizing centralized treatment to remove hardness has several advantages which will be discussed in this memo. The treatment goal at the Woodbury WTP is to soften to 125 mg/L or less, which is considered moderate hardness. Water supplies maintaining a hardness below 125 mg/L as CaCO3 are typically acceptable to the public and when economically feasible, a target hardness at or below 125 mg/L is ideal to support the complete removal of household water softener systems. If the City of Woodbury elects to provide softened water to its customers, the recommended target finished water hardness level is moderate hardness, less than 125 as CaCO3. P05574-2019-002 Page 1 of 17 Think Big. Go Beyond. www.ae2s.com Technical Memorandum Re: Centralized Municipal Water Softening Impacts September 1, 2022 Table 1: Water Hardness Scale Category CaCO3 Range Soft < 60 mg/L Medium hard 60-120 mg/L Hard 120-180 mg/L Very hard 180-350 mg/L Brackish > 350 mg/L Water hardness is caused mainly by calcium and magnesium dissolved in the water. These minerals will react with soap and detergents creating a difficult to remove scum. High hardness waters will also cause scaling in water pipes, hot water heaters, and appliances. Higher levels of calcium and magnesium in water lead to higher concentrations of dissolved solids. Total Dissolved Solids (TDS) is the measure of total amount of minerals dissolved in the water. To remove the hardness water softening is primarily achieved in one of two ways; Ion Exchange Softeners or Centralized Lime/Soda Ash Softening. Ion Exchange Softeners In-home Ion Exchange water softening involves replacing the hardness causing ions (primarily calcium and magnesium) with non-hardness ions (generally sodium). This exchange is facilitated by a resin saturated with sodium. The hard water passes through this resin, exchanging its magnesium and calcium ions for the sodium ions on the resin. Eventually the resin must be recharged to flush the collected magnesium and calcium ions and replenish the lost sodium ions. This is accomplished by backflushing a brine (salt) solution through the resin. The sodium ions from the brine replace the magnesium and calcium ions in the resin and the resulting magnesium, calcium, and chloride solution is then discharged to the sewer or septic system. Ion Exchange softeners do not reduce the concentration of TDS in the water. Centralized Lime/Soda Ash Softening Lime/Soda Ash softening is typically done at a centralized facility that softens the entire water supply. Lime and, where required, soda ash softening consists of adding calcium hydroxide (Ca(OH)2) to increase the raw water pH to promote the formation of calcium carbonate (CaCO3) and magnesium hydroxide (Mg(OH)2) solids, which can be settled out or be removed through filtration. The removal of this calcium and magnesium reduces the total hardness of the water, thereby “softening” it. Centralized softening also reduces the TDS in the treated water. For groundwater that is deficient in alkalinity, soda ash (Na2CO3) can be added for additional hardness removal. In Minnesota, lime residuals are typically dewatered, and land applied on farmland in the region to augment soil pH and alkalinity. Given the raw water characteristics in Woodbury, the City would need both lime and soda ash systems to meet effluent hardness goals. P05574-2019-002 Page 2 of 17 Think Big. Go Beyond. www.ae2s.com Technical Memorandum Re: Centralized Municipal Water Softening Impacts September 1, 2022 Both of these softening options are available to the City of Woodbury and its residents. They each have their own benefits and challenges that need to be considered when choosing what is right for the community. It is important to note that in-home ion exchange softeners can still be utilized along with centralized softening but each resident can make that choice depending on the level of hardness that they find acceptable and the economic impacts. With reaching a treatment goal of 125 mg/l it is likely few residents would find additional softening necessary. Woodbury has a strong interest in centralized municipal softening and has asked AE2S to provide this technical memorandum to further evaluate the potential benefits of centralized softening. POTENTIAL BENEFITS OF CENTRALIZED SOFTENING In general, centralized municipal softening substantially increases the ability for a community to modify the chemical characteristics of its drinking water. These modifications are focused on pH adjustment and the precipitation of calcium and magnesium which ultimately reduces the hardness of the water. While softening is the main benefit there are other secondary impacts that prove to be beneficial to a community. Those impacts can be grouped into three categories: • Environmental • Economic • Social ENVIRONMENTAL BENEFITS The City of Woodbury takes great pride in maintaining a focus on being an environmentally focused community. They practice environmental stewardship by making appropriate investments in preservation, adaptation, mitigation, and maintenance of the city’s infrastructure. As part of the Woodbury WTP, the City plans to incorporate a focus on sustainability into the design and construction of the facility. Centralized lime softening has the potential to provide several environmental benefits to the community and the region such as: • Reduced consumption of soaps and cleaners for all households, especially those households which do not own a water softener (This is also accomplished by in-home softeners). • Lowered dissolved solids in the treated water which results in fewer water spots upon drying. This also prevents fouling of water heaters, boilers, and other equipment that heats water with an electric element. • Lower dissolved solids minimize scaling in transmission mains reducing maintenance. P05574-2019-002 Page 3 of 17 Think Big. Go Beyond. www.ae2s.com Technical Memorandum Re: Centralized Municipal Water Softening Impacts September 1, 2022 • Homeowners will see the benefits in reduced scaling and stains on fixtures in kitchens and bathrooms and an increased life of household appliances such as washing machines and dishwashers. • Chloride reduction in the wastewater stream due to the reduced usage of in-home Ion Exchange softeners. • Reduced sodium concentration in drinking water if in-home water softeners are removed from use in the home. If softeners are not removed, lowered sodium concentration in proportion to the amount of hardness removed from the water. • Centralized softening allows for adjustment of the pH of the water to better control potential lead and copper corrosion. • Potential for enhanced water reuse / conservation. • Lime softening also produces residual solids that can be reused locally as agricultural lime in the region. • Removal or reduction of additional water contaminants such as: o Iron and Manganese o Dissolved mineral concentrations associated with scale formation. o Radium 226 / 228 o Heavy metals including arsenic o Total Organic Carbon (TOC) o Silica o Turbidity Chloride in Wastewater A significant indirect side benefit of centralized softening is the reduced reliance on in-home water softeners to soften the water. In-home water softeners utilize an Ion Exchange process that has a resin saturated with sodium and exchanges calcium or magnesium ions for sodium ions. When the media is being recharged, which can occur every few days when treating water with high hardness levels, a brine solution is used to flush the media, which is then discharged to the sanitary sewer. This discharge has a high concentration of chloride which ends up at the wastewater treatment plant (WWTP). The chloride cannot be easily removed through the WWTP and ultimately ends up in the wastewater discharge to the receiving body of water. Minnesota has a wastewater quality standard for chloride of 230 mg/L over a 4-day average to protect aquatic organisms in the environment. Currently, chloride levels measured in wastewater from approximately 100 communities across Minnesota exceed these standards. As an example, three wastewater treatment plants in the Sand Creek watershed in Scott County, MN have effluent chloride concentrations ranging from 521 mg/L to 618 mg/L, a summary of systems and the chloride levels in the wastewater effluent are shown in Figure 1. Many of these systems do P05574-2019-002 Page 4 of 17 Think Big. Go Beyond. www.ae2s.com Technical Memorandum Re: Centralized Municipal Water Softening Impacts September 1, 2022 not have centralized water softening facilities and rely instead on in-home Ion Exchange water softeners. Figure 1: Average Wastewater Effluent Chloride Concentrations Minnesota has developed a phased approach for WWTP operators to reduce the level of chloride in their discharge. Through monitoring and source inventory, options to reduce chloride levels may be determined. As discharges from in-home water softeners provide a significant source of chloride to wastewater, one option is to provide centralized water softening. Currently, the only available method to remove chloride from wastewater is through reverse osmosis which is expensive to install and operate. Financing for additions to remove chloride would most likely be done via rate hikes for clients such as Woodbury. Adding centralized water softening would help Woodbury reduce their contribution of chloride to the WWTP and potentially reduce future costs for chloride removal. Recently, in-home water softeners have been found to be a primary contributor to chloride loading at wastewater treatment plants in Minnesota. In a recent study household water softening was found to contribute 49% of all chloride in wastewater from domestic, commercial, and industrial sources in Minnesota. Commercial water softening contributed an additional 16% (Overbo et al., 2019). This means 65% of the chloride load to a wastewater treatment plant is from in-home and commercial water softeners. Figure 2 shows the percent contribution of chloride from several sources which discharge to the sanitary sewer in Minnesota. P05574-2019-002 Page 5 of 17 Think Big. Go Beyond. www.ae2s.com Technical Memorandum Re: Centralized Municipal Water Softening Impacts September 1, 2022 Figure 2: Percent Contribution of Chloride to wastewater from Several Sources in Minnesota Some residents may still elect to use in-home water softeners even if centralized softening is utilized in Woodbury. However, with the reduced total hardness of the treated water, the water softener may be set to recharge significantly less often. This will reduce the amount of water used in the home and reduce the amount of sodium and chloride discharged to the wastewater treatment plant. It also reduces the flow to the wastewater treatment plant. By reducing the hardness of the treated water from 300 mg/L to 125 mg/L through centralized water softening the reduction in the total amount of salt discharged to the environment by Woodbury residents will be reduced. The reduction in salt usage was estimated based on the winter average flow of 5.5 million gallons per day (MGD), a population of approximately 76,923 people, and 28,176 households respectively. The number of homes utilizing water softeners was estimated at 90% and was based on a national study (Howson, 1962) on water softener usage across the country based on raw water hardness. The results from this national study are shown in Figure 3. Using the average winter usage represents indoor water usage and eliminates the variable lawn watering volume during the summer. In most homes, the outside water spigot is not plumbed through the water softener and thus summer water usage would skew the results. P05574-2019-002 Page 6 of 17 Think Big. Go Beyond. www.ae2s.com Technical Memorandum Re: Centralized Municipal Water Softening Impacts September 1, 2022 Figure 3: Percent of Homes Utilizing Ion Exchange Water Softeners Based on Raw Water Hardness Assumptions: • Winter water usage of 72 gallons per capita per day (gpcd) and an estimated 2.73 per people per household. • 90% of connections in Woodbury utilize water softeners (a common assumption for communities with hardness above 300 mg/L). • 80% of water used in residential homes in the winter is softened. • All households adjust their water softeners to treat the lower hardness water when centralized softening is instituted. Given these parameters, if Woodbury utilized centralized water softening at the future Woodbury WTP and reduced hardness to 125 mg/L, the city could eliminate over 3,144 tons of salt annually that is currently discharged to the wastewater system. If Woodbury were to reduce the hardness to less than 125 mg/L and a majority of homeowners removed their in-home softeners, the impact could be twice the amount presented above. By reducing the chloride coming from in-home water softeners and thereby reducing the chloride in the wastewater system the benefits also extend to the Metropolitan Council Environmental Services (MCES) associated with any current or future chloride regulations in the wastewater system or rivers where the wastewater is discharged to (Figure 4). This may result in lower impact to rates for the community should MCES need to implement technologies to manage chloride. P05574-2019-002 Page 7 of 17 Think Big. Go Beyond. www.ae2s.com Technical Memorandum Re: Centralized Municipal Water Softening Impacts September 1, 2022 Figure 4: Chloride Discharge Concentrations and River Concentrations Reduced Consumption of Soaps and Cleaners Soap is much less effective in hard water because the fatty acids of soap reacts with hardness to form calcium or magnesium salts. These salts are insoluble and form a solid precipitate (soap scum), instead of producing lather. This soap scum impacts the cleaning effectiveness for water users and residents when washing dishes, bathing, or laundry. Dry, itchy skin can be caused by hard water. Hard water contains calcium and magnesium and will leave behind soap scum, which will clog pores. The minerals will also absorb some of the natural moisture from your skin. Lowered Total Dissolved Solids (TDS) in the Drinking Water In lime softening, there is a substantial reduction in TDS in the treated water. In Ion Exchange softening there is no significant change in the level of TDS. The reduction of TDS from centralized lime softening reduces fouling of water heaters, boilers, and other equipment that heats water with an electric element. Homeowners will see the benefits in reduced scaling and stains on fixtures in kitchens and bathrooms and an increased life of household appliances such as washing machines and dishwashers. Reduced Sodium Concentration in Drinking Water Sodium chloride is the predominate salt used in in-home Ion Exchange water softeners. Sodium is exchanged for calcium and magnesium in the water to remove the water hardness. This calcium and magnesium / sodium exchange increases the sodium concentration in the drinking P05574-2019-002 Page 8 of 17 Think Big. Go Beyond. www.ae2s.com Technical Memorandum Re: Centralized Municipal Water Softening Impacts September 1, 2022 water in the home. Sodium intake can contribute to hypertension, a major risk factor for cardiovascular disease. The amount of sodium in tap water is typically low, but Ion Exchange softeners release sodium into the drinking water during the Ion Exchange process. The amount of sodium in drinking water from water softening is usually minimal compared to an average diet and has little effect on healthy individuals but may be a concern to individuals with hypertension on low sodium diets. If Woodbury decides to add centralized water softening, a benefit for residents in older homes which utilize in-home Ion Exchange softening and lack a hard water tap at the kitchen sink could see their sodium concentrations in the drinking water decrease. This is due to the decreased calcium / magnesium concentration in the water entering the home thus reducing the amount of sodium when the water is run through the Ion Exchange softener. Converting to centralized water softening will give Woodbury residents more flexibility in choosing the quality of water that they would like to consume. If they chose to continue the use of their Ion Exchange softener, they will still have higher levels of sodium in their water but the level will be lower than if centralized treatment was not used. If they chose to completely remove their water softener, the amount of sodium in the water will be similar to the water leaving the Woodbury WTP. Adjustment of the pH Water quality can have a strong influence and importance on lead and copper levels in drinking water. Water quality can affect the rate of corrosion of lead and copper materials, the formation and characteristics of scales that form on lead and copper-based materials, and ultimately, the release of metals into the water. Alkalinity, pH, dissolved inorganic carbon (DIC), and corrosion inhibitors remain critical parameters that directly impact lead release. There are optimal ranges of pH and DIC that result in the greatest formation of pipe scale, and in this way prevent the release of lead and copper. The pH, alkalinity, and DIC of water can be highly variable within the distribution system depending on which wells are utilized. The pH can fluctuate due to interactions between water and pipe material, microbiological activity, and changes in disinfectant residual. Centralized softening gives the city of Woodbury more tools to manage the variation in water quality. A centralized water softening system is equipped with equipment and chemicals that can substantially change the pH and alkalinity of the water to limit its corrosion potential. Woodbury’s current pH ranges from 7.5-7.9. A centralized softening system would operate with a pH of around 9.0. A drinking water system that operates with a pH of 9 and a free chlorine disinfection residual substantially reduces the chances of lead and copper compliance issues. Enhanced Water Reuse/Conservation Typical home water softeners are required to regenerate periodically to recharge the Ion Exchange media. That regeneration process requires the use of a salt brine and water to P05574-2019-002 Page 9 of 17 Think Big. Go Beyond. www.ae2s.com Technical Memorandum Re: Centralized Municipal Water Softening Impacts September 1, 2022 recharge the media and rinse the resin tank of accumulated hard minerals, iron, and other particulates. Water softeners regenerate periodically depending on the size of the water softener, incoming water hardness, and the amount of water passing through the water softener. Centralized municipal softening reduces the hardness concentration, thus reducing the number of regeneration cycles required by the water softeners. This reduction ultimately saves a large amount of water. A typical home water softener has a capacity of approximately 32,000 grains of hardness. Woodbury has an average hardness of 311 mg/L (18 grains) which will typically require a regeneration cycle every 9 days for a normal sized household. Reducing the hardness to 150 mg/L (9 grains) with centralized softening will reduce the regeneration cycle to every 18 days. On average a water softener will utilize 50 gallons of water per regeneration. Reducing the regeneration cycle from every 9 days to every 18 days will save over 2.1 million gallons of treated water per month or 25.7 million gallons of treated water each year for the city. This will also reduce the same amount of water going to the wastewater treatment plant, which will reduce the wastewater treatment costs by reducing the volume of water treated. This will also reduce DNR annual appropriation fees, assist in appropriation volume management, and mange pumping costs. Woodbury’s current water system treats approximately 51.4 million gallons of water a year for ion exchange water softener regeneration (assuming 50 gallons of water used per regeneration cycle and on average 3.3 regeneration cycles per month). Centralized softening to 125 mg/L would reduce the water required for regeneration to approximately 25.7 million gallons per year. If Woodbury was able to soften to 125 mg/L and remove water softeners entirely the water required for softener regeneration would be reduced to zero, although it is unlikely that all in- home softeners would be removed. Recycling Lime Sludge Centralized softening does produce a liquid waste stream (lime sludge), but it is substantially reduced with the use of a mechanical dewatering processes. The water that is removed from the lime residual is recycled back into the treatment process. Lime sludge is approximately 45% water. Approximately 68,000 gallons of water would be discharged per month or 821,000 gallons per year if the lime sludge is hauled off site. Lime sludge has been deemed by the Minnesota Pollution Control Agency (MPCA) to be beneficial for use by the agricultural industry. Lime sludge from softening can be used as a substitute for traditional agricultural liming agents that help regulate the pH of soils. Soils may become more acidic over time due to fertilizer/manure applications, erosion, leaching and the decomposition of organic matter. A change in soil acidity can impact crop productivity. When needed, liming materials can be major beneficial inputs for crop production in Minnesota. When soils are acidic, lime will neutralize the soil to the ideal pH. pH can affect the availability of plant P05574-2019-002 Page 10 of 17 Think Big. Go Beyond. www.ae2s.com Technical Memorandum Re: Centralized Municipal Water Softening Impacts September 1, 2022 nutrients and impact microbial activity, so managing soil pH can be of great benefit to crop production; however, commercially produced liming agents come at a high cost to the farmer or producer. Agricultural lime has been shown to increase yield, but the cost of liming can be substantial. Some farmers have access to free or inexpensive liming materials like water treatment lime sludge. Access to water treatment lime sludge provides a valuable resource to local farmers and boosts the local agricultural economy (Vetsch, 2018). Sustainability In addition to economic and service level benefits, centralized softening results in significant increases in environmental sustainability. As previously mentioned, combined household and industrial water softening account for 65% of all chloride discharge to wastewater treatment plants in Minnesota. Utilizing centralized softening reduces the need for in-home softeners, thereby creating the opportunity to reduce chloride discharge by up to 65%. Chloride has significant detrimental effects throughout the ecosystem, with effects on fish, amphibians, plants, and invertebrates (Evans & Frick, 2001; Collins & Russell, 2009; Miklovic & Galatowitsch, 2005; Williams et al., 1997). Chloride does not naturally degrade in surface waters, presenting an increased risk of concentrations reaching levels that may harm the ecosystem. Wastewater discharged to septic systems may infiltrate and contaminate groundwater sources with chloride as well. Incorporating centralized lime softening proactively works to protect surrounding ecosystems and minimizes Woodbury’s environmental footprint. A centralized lime softening system also reduces the waste of treated water through the backwash/regeneration cycle of the in-home Ion Exchange water softeners. Using the estimated reduction in water usage from Ion Exchange softener regeneration of 25.7 million gallons per year, this equates to a reduction in daily water demand by up to 70,000 gallons per day from switching to centralized softening. This reduction will help protect Woodbury’s groundwater source from being overdrawn and reduce electrical and chemical usage. ECONOMIC IMPACTS Implementing centralized water softening can have a positive economic impact on the city of Woodbury. Strategic economic investments by a community can have a significant impact on their ability to sustain growth long into the future. Investing in centralized water softening now can have potential long-term gains for the city. Enhanced Service The City of Woodbury has a strong history of providing their citizens with a high quality of service. Adding centralized water softening will increase the level of service offered by P05574-2019-002 Page 11 of 17 Think Big. Go Beyond. www.ae2s.com Technical Memorandum Re: Centralized Municipal Water Softening Impacts September 1, 2022 Woodbury and will benefit residents as a result. The timing for adding central water softening is ideal. Numerous cities in the metropolitan area have centralized water softening such as: • Bloomington • Eden Prairie • Richfield • Minneapolis (including service to Golden Valley, Crystal, New Hope) • Robbinsdale • White Bear Lake • Tonka bay • St. Paul Regional Water (including communities that utilize SPRW service) These communities have incorporated central water softening to provide better service for their citizens. Figure 3 illustrates the communities in the metropolitan area that provide centralized water softening. Figure 5: Communities in Minnesota Utilizing Centralized Water Softening (Bakshi et. al., 2021) P05574-2019-002 Page 12 of 17 Think Big. Go Beyond. www.ae2s.com Technical Memorandum Re: Centralized Municipal Water Softening Impacts September 1, 2022 Woodbury has the opportunity to provide its residents with a similar level of service as these communities, which may be attractive to potential residents or businesses when they are considering where to live or grow their business. Timing The current 3M settlement will not be paying for recapitalization of the new infrastructure that is being constructed to treat for PFAS. Once the initial construction of this infrastructure is complete Woodbury should begin planning for the recapitalization of this infrastructure. The timeline for replacement varies for each component but much of the infrastructure has an anticipated 30-50 year life span. The payment period for a typical municipal bond is around 30 years. Incorporating central water softening now will allow Woodbury time to pay off the entire cost for the initial infrastructure. Once that initial investment is paid off Woodbury will be in a strong position to transition those same revenue dollars into savings for the capital replacement of the infrastructure. If Woodbury is forced into softening due to regulatory changes and decides to invest in centralized water softening at a later date it will be challenged to balance the initial debt and O&M cost of PFAS treatment with the future infrastructure cost of softening. By building a facility to perform centralized water softening from the start, Woodbury will be able to minimize the impacts of future capital cost inflation and begin paying down debt required to build a treatment facility. If requirements for centralized water softening are presented in the future Woodbury will be in a strong financial position because they have already made this investment in their community. In a sense, centralized water softening will help “future-proof” Woodbury from potential regulatory changes related to chloride concentrations from in-home water softeners. Citizen Financial Impacts Whether a homeowner decides to keep or remove an existing water softener the reduction in salt usage will still be significant for the City of Woodbury. Salt costs an average of $6.60 (2022) for a 40-lb bag. Collectively, Woodbury homeowners would see an annual salt usage reduction of 3,144 tons, thereby saving approximately $1 million dollars per year on salt and significantly reducing the amount of salt discharged to the environment. Home water softeners cost approximately $2,000 for purchase and install and last between 10- 20 years. If 90% of Woodbury’s connections have an in-home water softener that is over $50M in softening equipment that is replaced every 10-20 years Current homeowners without a water softener will also see significant benefits if a centralized lime softening system is constructed. P05574-2019-002 Page 13 of 17 Think Big. Go Beyond. www.ae2s.com Technical Memorandum Re: Centralized Municipal Water Softening Impacts September 1, 2022 Citizens Without an In-Home Softener Citizens without an in-home water softener will see savings from having softened water. Ways that softened water provides savings include reduced soap usage, reduced water heating costs, reduced plumbing scale treatment costs, increased clothes lifespan, and increased water appliance lifespan (Aultman and Larson, 1973; Godskesen et al., 2012). Studies examining just the cost associated with cleaning products for systems with hard water estimate savings of $28.00 annually per person for each 100 ppm decrease in water hardness (Tihansky, 1974). Aesthetic benefits to water with lower hardness include less water spots and reduced cleaning time to remove soap scum. Citizens With an In-Home Softener Citizens that already have invested in an in-home water softening system would still benefit from a centralized water softening system. It is estimated that removing in-home Ion Exchange water softening and replacing with centralized lime softening would save Woodbury citizens approximately $5.13 per month on salt usage. Reductions in water and wastewater charges will also be realized with the reduced number of recharges per month. There is also savings on replacement costs of an in-home water softener once it’s removed. Depending on the make, in-home water softeners generally last between 10-20 years. Assuming a replacement cost of $2,000 every 20 years the approximate savings per household on water softener replacement would be $8.33 per month. This would offset the additional treatment cost of the centralized lime softening, estimated at $10.35 per month for the average household usage rate (this additional treatment estimate is O&M only and does not include the capital cost effect on the utility monthly rate). Households that decide to keep their softener, in addition to centralized lime softening, will still see a reduction in the salt usage and monthly salt savings of approximately $3.07. A summary of the softening cost comparison is provided in Table 2: Table 2: Softening Cost Comparison* Softening Approach Current In-Home Centralized Centralized Softening Softening Softening (keeping/adjusting (removing in- in-home softener) home softener) Monthly Salt Cost $5.13 $2.06 - Monthly Centralized Softening - $10.35 $10.35 Water Rate Increase Monthly Water Softener Cost $8.33 $8.33 - Total Softening Cost $13.46 $20.74 $10.35 * Softening Cost Comparison estimate includes only O&M costs (salt cost, centralized treatment cost, and in-home softener replacement cost) and does not include any capital cost in the monthly estimates. P05574-2019-002 Page 14 of 17 Think Big. Go Beyond. www.ae2s.com Technical Memorandum Re: Centralized Municipal Water Softening Impacts September 1, 2022 SOCIAL Adding centralized water softening will help Woodbury increase equity among citizens. Operating an in-home water softener requires capital and space that some residents may not have access too. Utilizing centralized water softening will make it possible for all citizens, regardless of affluence, to enjoy the economic, health, and aesthetic benefits that come with softened water. Quality of Life Hard water causes significant aesthetic issues, ranging from scale on plumbing fixtures, to weathered clothes, to more difficulty cleaning dishes. Citizens gaining softened water from the centralized lime softening system will have these aesthetic issues alleviated. The increased lifespan of water appliances, such as hot water heaters, will also improve their quality of life. All citizens with an in-home softener will have the option to remove their softener from their home with a switch to centralized softening. Switching to centralized softening will make one less appliance that homeowners must maintain (assuming the in-home softener is removed). Additionally, in-home Ion Exchange water softeners increase sodium levels in drinking water. While they do not increase sodium levels significantly compared to normal diets, citizens on a low-sodium diet to prevent hypertension may benefit from the switch to centralized lime softening and reducing, or eliminating, the additional sodium from the home water softener. Environmentally conscious citizens will be able to realize the benefits of softened water without worrying about the impact their in-home softener has on the environment. Finally, As summarized on page 4, softening provides removal or reduction of additional water contaminants such as: • Iron and Manganese • Dissolved mineral concentrations associated with scale formation. • Radium 226 / 228 • Heavy metals including arsenic • Total Organic Carbon (TOC) • Silica • Turbidity Woodbury water meets current standards for radium and manganese; however, as science on the impact of these contaminants evolves, implementation of softening will have positioned Woodbury to continue to meet changing standards. P05574-2019-002 Page 15 of 17 Think Big. Go Beyond. www.ae2s.com Technical Memorandum Re: Centralized Municipal Water Softening Impacts September 1, 2022 CONCLUSIONS Incorporating a centralized lime softening system represents an exciting opportunity for Woodbury. Woodbury can proactively help the environment, save on a household’s softening treatment costs, and increase equity among citizens all while helping safeguard the city from future fees and increasing its desirability for families and industries. Lime and soda ash softening is the preferred alternative for the City of Woodbury, not only because it is the most common softening process used in municipal treatment, but also that it is the most cost-effective method for hardness reduction compared to other treatment technologies. Lime and soda ash softening allows for maximum recycle of residuals and reducing water loss which is critical in the Woodbury WTP because of the limited potential for increased raw water well capacity in the future. P05574-2019-002 Page 16 of 17 Think Big. Go Beyond. www.ae2s.com Technical Memorandum Re: Centralized Municipal Water Softening Impacts September 1, 2022 References Aultman, W.W., and Larson, T.E. Synthetic Detergents as a Factor in Water Softening Economics. Journal of American Water Works Association. Orlando, FL. 1973. Bakshi, B., Doucette, E. M., Kyser S. J. Centralized softening as a solution to chloride pollution: An empirical analysis based on Minnesota cities. February 2021. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0246688 City of Woodbury. Community Profile. https://www.woodburymn.gov/704/Community- Profile#:~:text=The%202020%20Census%20notes%20that,assets%20is%20its%20growing%20diversity. Accessed 13 June 2022. Collins, S.J., Russell, R.W. Toxicity of Road Salt to Nova Scotia Amphibians. Environmental Pollution. 2009. Evans, M., Frick, C. The Effects of Road Salts on Aquatic Ecosystems. National Water Research Institute. Saskatoon, Saskatchewan. 2001. Godskesen et al. Life Cycle Assessment of Central Softening of Very Hard Drinking Water. Journal of Environmental Management. 2012. Haferman Water Conditioning. How Long do Water Softeners Last? Tips for Extending its Life . https://www.hafermanwater.com/how-long-do-water-softeners-last-tips-for-extending-its- life/#:~:text=Water%20softeners%20can%20last%2010,However%2C%20no%20appliance%20lasts%20foreve r Koudelka et al. 3m Settlement Long-term Program Goals: Central Water Softening. MPCA, MNDNR. Cottage Grove, MN. March 2021. Kyser, S.; Doucette, E. Alternatives for Addressing Chloride in Wastewater Effluent. MPCA. Saint Paul, MN. December 2018. Miklovic, S., and Galatowitsch, S.M. Effect of NaCl and Typha angustifolia L. on Marsh Community Establishment: a Greenhouse Study. Wetlands. 2005. Minnesota Pollution Control Agency, LimnoTech. Twin Cities Metropolitan Area Chloride Total Maximum Daily Load Study. MPCA. February 2016 Minnesota Pollution Control Agency. Water Permit Holders and Chloride. MPCA. https://www.pca.state.mn.us/water/water-permit-holders-and-chloride Accessed 13 June 2022. Overbo et al. Chloride Contributions from Water Softeners and Other Domestic, Commercial, Industrial, and Agricultural Sources to Minnesota Waters. UMNWRC, MPCA, UMN CEGE. Minneapolis, MN. January 2019. Tihansky, D.P. Economic Damages From Residential Use of Mineralized Water Supply. Water Resources Research. 1974. U.S. Census. QuickFacts: Woodbury city, Minnesota. https://www.census.gov/quickfacts/fact/table/woodburycityminnesota/POP010210#POP010210 Accessed 13 June 2022. Vetsch, J, New Research Shows Increased Yield with Liming Treatments. January 2018. https://blog-crop- news.extension.umn.edu/2018/01/jeff-vetsch-soil-scientist-when-needed.html Williams et al. Spatial Differences in Macroinvertebrate Community Structure in Springs in Southeastern Ontario in Relation to Their Chemical and Physical Environments. Canadian Journal of Zoology. 1997 P05574-2019-002 Page 17 of 17 Think Big. Go Beyond. www.ae2s.com